Ecosystem-based Adaptation to Climate Change (EbA)
A participatory and holistic Ecosystem-based Adaptation process aims at the development of strategies, measures, and locally adjusted activities to adapt to climate change by strengthening the functionality of ecosystems while safeguarding and developing fundamental ecosystem services for the population. EbA has the potential to preserve and develop the vital ecosystem functions and services and the associated synergies in the sense of sustainable development.
A fundamental starting point of EbA is the conservation of existing, functional ecosystems since these already provide and secure a multitude of functions and thus regulating, provisioning, and cultural ecosystem services (cf. Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services - CICES).
The Primary Fields of Action
The active involvement of the local population, regional experts, NGOs, and interest groups pursues the objectives of a detailed situation analysis, to create lasting structures for participation and exchange and to build local capacities. The EbA topic is brought closer to the local population and actively shaped in the form of workshops, information stands, project groups, specialist focus groups, and the publication of information brochures. Local knowledge and the willingness to participate are central to the project´s success.
At the planning and strategic level, EbA should receive more attention. The necessity and potential for sustainable regional development need to be made explicit and accessible. Through the active participation and involvement of various regional and supra-regional decision-makers, mainstreaming and the consolidation of EbA at the political level should be ensured. A planning framework is to be created by drawing up a catalogue of measures, strategy papers, technical documentation and work plans.
Framing the Legal Context for Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA)
To enable the effective implementation of Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA), a solid legal foundation is essential. International law provides the overarching framework within which national and regional climate legislation is developed and operationalised. Over the past three decades, climate change has evolved from an emerging environmental concern into a central pillar of international governance, supported by overwhelming scientific consensus and increasingly institutionalised legal mechanisms.
While international climate law has significantly matured - particularly under the Paris Agreement - important challenges remain in translating global commitments into concrete, sector-specific regulatory instruments. Adaptation law, including nature-based and ecosystem-based approaches, is generally less detailed and less enforceable than mitigation law in many jurisdictions.
EbA is therefore rarely codified as a standalone legal obligation. Instead, it is embedded indirectly in climate treaties, biodiversity law, and policy guidance. Its practical implementation depends largely on national legislation, regional strategies, and sectoral frameworks (e.g., water management, forestry, coastal protection, and spatial planning).
International Climate Law Framework
1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adopted in 1992, constitutes the foundation of international climate law.
Its objective (Article 2) is the stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system, within a timeframe sufficient to:
- Allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change;
- Ensure food production is not threatened;
- Enable sustainable economic development.
The Convention establishes the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC). Adaptation is explicitly recognised in Article 4(1)(e), which calls on Parties to cooperate in preparing for adaptation to climate change impacts.
The UNFCCC currently has near-universal participation (197 Parties).
2. Kyoto Protocol (1997–2020)
The Kyoto Protocol introduced legally binding greenhouse gas reduction targets for developed (Annex I) countries. It operationalised the CBDR principle by placing quantified emission reduction obligations primarily on industrialised states.
The second commitment period (2013–2020) was established through the Doha Amendment. The Kyoto framework formally concluded in 2020 and has since been superseded by the Paris Agreement architecture.
3. Paris Agreement (2015–Present)
The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 and in force since 2016, forms the core of contemporary international climate governance.
Objectives (Article 2)
The Agreement aims to:
- Hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C (Article 2(1)(a)).
- Increase adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience, and reduce vulnerability;
- Align financial flows with low-emission and climate-resilient development pathways.
Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement applies to all Parties, reflecting a universal participation model.
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
Under Article 4, each Party must prepare, communicate, and update Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) every five years. These reflect national mitigation and, increasingly, adaptation commitments.
Collective progress is assessed through the Global Stocktake (Article 14). The first Global Stocktake (2023) emphasised the urgent need to accelerate mitigation, scale up adaptation efforts, and increase climate finance.
Adaptation under the Paris Agreement
Adaptation is elevated to a global objective under Article 7 of the Paris Agreement.
The Agreement establishes a Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) aimed at enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience, and reducing vulnerability to climate change.
Article 7(9) encourages Parties to undertake adaptation planning processes, including:
- Implementation of adaptation actions;
- Formulation and implementation of National Adaptation Plans (NAPs);
- Climate risk and vulnerability assessments;
- Monitoring, evaluation, and learning mechanisms;
- Strengthening socio-economic and ecological resilience.
In addition, recent developments under the UNFCCC process include the operationalisation (2023) of a Loss and Damage Fund, addressing irreversible climate impacts particularly affecting vulnerable developing countries.
Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA)
Legal Recognition
EbA is not expressly mandated as a binding standalone obligation in the UNFCCC or the Paris Agreement. However, it is clearly recognised and supported within international climate and biodiversity governance.
Article 7(5) of the Paris Agreement provides that adaptation action should be guided by the best available science and take into consideration vulnerable people, communities, and ecosystems. Conference of the Parties (COP) decisions under both the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement explicitly reference ecosystem-based approaches.
Moreover, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) actively promotes ecosystem-based approaches to climate adaptation and mitigation in its decisions and guidance.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, particularly in its Sixth Assessment Report (Working Group II, 2022), identifies ecosystem-based adaptation as an effective, multifunctional and often cost-efficient strategy that delivers co-benefits for biodiversity, climate resilience, and sustainable development.
In summary:
- EbA is legally supported but not explicitly required as a standalone obligation under international climate treaties.
- It is embedded within broader adaptation frameworks and biodiversity law.
- Its operationalisation depends largely on national legislation, planning instruments, and sector-specific regulation.
As adaptation gains increasing political and financial attention, ecosystem-based approaches are becoming more systematically integrated into National Adaptation Plans, NDCs, and regional climate strategies.
Sources:
- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
- Kyoto Protocol (1997) and Doha Amendment (2012)
- Paris Agreement (2015), Articles 2, 4, 7 and 14
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Sixth Assessment Reports (2021–2023)
- Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), decisions on ecosystem-based approaches
For comprehensive situation analysis and spatial decision-making, high-resolution satellite imagery and geospatial mapping tools must be systematically employed. These tools should provide integrated spatial assessments of ecosystem types and their distribution, hydrological conditions, temperature patterns, and ecosystem vulnerability, including the distribution and intensity of climate-related stressors.
Based on these data, scientifically grounded target maps must be developed to serve as spatial decision-support instruments. These maps should enable the identification and prioritisation of areas with the greatest need for Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) interventions, taking into account ecological sensitivity, exposure to climate risks, and socio-economic relevance.
